1. Определение – это член предложения, указывающий на признак предмета и отвечающий на вопрос «какой?». Оно относится к существительному. В английском языке наиболее типичными являются атрибутивные группы A+N (прилагательное + существительное), например, an important problem – важная проблема. Однако очень распространёнными являются номинативные атрибутивные группы, где определение выражено существительным N₁+N₂, например, space missions – космические полёты или полёты в космос.

Трудность номинативных групп N₁+N₂ для перевода заключается в том, что нужно уметь найти основное слово в цепочек существительных с тем, чтобы предшествующие ему слова перевести как определения. Случаи, когда N₁ эквивалентно существительному в именительном падеже, например, signal-generator – (сигнал-генератор) очень редки. Зачастую даже двухкомпонентные атрибутивные группы нужно переводить целым придаточным предложением, например, pay pocket – конверт, в котором выдаётся заработная плата.

В научно-технической литературе наиболее употребительными являются двухкомпонентные атрибутивные группы типа N₁+N₂.

Номинативные атрибутивные группы в технической литературе могут включать до шести существительных. При переводе таких цепочек существительных, несущее большую смысловую нагрузку, ставится на первое место. Например, water energy pressure – давление за счёт энергии воды.

На уровне предложения выделение атрибутивных групп облегчается наличием ряда признаков. Так суффикс у основного (последнего в цепочке) существительного помогает найти стоящие перед ним определения.

2. В атрибутивной группе, независимо от её количественного состава, основным существительным является последнее слово, а предшествующие ему – определениями.

3. Эквивалентном атрибутивной группы N₁+N₂ является сочетание двух существительных, соединённых предлогом «of», причём они могут подвергаться взаимной трансформации, например, the structure reliability = the reliability of the structure = надёжность конструкции.

4. В атрибутивных группах типа A+ N₁+N₂, где А – прилагательное, и N₁+N₂+N₃ основным является последнее существительное, а остальные – определения к нему.

Перевод A+ N₁+N₂ может совпадать с порядком следования слов в атрибутивной группе, например: narrow vacuum vessel – узкий вакуумный сосуд. Однако во многих случаях при переводе A+ N₁+N₂ и N₁+N₂+N₃ необходимо, как правило, сначала перевести основное (последнее существительное), а затем – определения к нему. Порядок перевода слов в атрибутивных группах может быть различным и определяется по смыслу, например: Low temperature physics – физика низких температур.

5. Выделение атрибутивной группы N₁+N₂ облегчается наличием различных суффиксов существительного N₂ (-er (-or), -ment, -ion (-tion, -sion)), например: We compare the levels of machine vibrations with biological systems.

6. Наличие явного сказуемого (is, are, was, were, have, had, has, must, can, may) – облегчает поиск атрибутивной группы N₁+N₂, выступающей в функции подлежащего, например: Sound waves are analyzed by the computer every one-hundredth of a second.

7. Атрибутивная группа N₁+N₂ может входить в состав подлежащего и вводиться при помощи различных предлогов (of, at, in), например: A new type of laser beam has been developed by Byelorussian scientists, где, N₁+N₂ /laser beam/, стоящее перед явным сказуемым «has been developed», вводится в группу подлежащего при помощи предлога “of” (новый тип лазерного луча).

8. За атрибутивной группой подлежащего N₁+N₂ может стоять неявное сказуемое. Оно может быть выражено словом без предлогов, местоимений и т.д., согласующимся с подлежащим по правилу противоположности окончания s, или словом с –ed, например: Microwave energy enters the cavity through a hole in the wall. Слово enters согласуется по правилу противоположности “s” со словом energy и образует пару подлежащего-сказуемого (energy enters), следовательно, слово microwave (N₁) является определением к слову energy (N₂) и переводится «энергия микроволн».

9. Атрибутивная группа N₁+N₂ может входить в состав второстепенных членов предложения – определения, дополнения, обстоятельства и находиться в его правой части после сказуемого, например: The glue is already used in the production of car tires, где N₁+N₂ (car tires) входит в состав предложного дополнения.

10 sentences:

1) Liquid nitrogen can be contained only in a special vessel.

2) Long range rockets were used in war since 1934.

3) Steel pipes are more reliable than plastic pipes.

4) Atomic power station Chernobyl exploded in 1986.

5) Electric chair has been used in execution.

6) Space ship is very expensive.

7) Electric lamp is used in every house.

8) Rock crystal is not a rare mineral.

9) Laser printer can print about 20 pages per minute.

10) Computer revolution began in 80s.

Text:

The first man-made satellite was launched on October 4, 1957. It demonstrated to the whole world the boundless opportunities of our country in science and technology. People everywhere in the world now know the Russian world “Sputnik”.

It was Juri Gagarin’s flight in 1961 that began an era of manned space flights on orbital space stations.

The Soviet Union did much in the exploration and use of outer space for the benefit of man. Highly qualified specialists performed scientific experiments aboard space stations. They used the latest automatic instruments and computers in their work.

The USSR made great contribution to extensive interna­tional cooperation in space research and to the use of outer space for peaceful purposes.

Some years ago nine socialist countries adopted a joint space research program.

The Soviet and international crews performed a large number of astrophysical, geophysical and other research experiments. Space flights are no longer regarded as being experiments by brave people or even by individual countries. The Intercosmos of the socialist community countries proves the advantages of joint efforts.

The Soviet Union is also successfully cooperating in space research with France, India, the USA and Sweden.

It pays great attention to the manned flights program which helps to solve a number of scientific and applied economic problems.

Comparative Adjectives

When we talk about 2 things, we can "compare" them. We can see if they are the same or different. Perhaps they are the same in some ways and different in other ways.

A       B

We can use comparative adjectives to describe the differences. "A is bigger than B."

Formation of Comparative Adjectives

There are two ways to form a comparative adjective:

• short adjectives: add '-er'

• long adjectives: use 'more'

Tip. With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-er' or 'more':

• quiet > quieter/more quiet

• clever > cleverer/more clever

• narrow > narrower/more narrow

• simple > simpler/more simple

Exception! The following adjectives have irregular forms:

• good > better

• well (healthy) > better

• bad > worse

• far > farther/further

Use of Comparative Adjectives

We use comparative adjectives when talking about 2 things (not 3 or 10 or 1,000,000 things, only 2 things).

Often, the comparative adjective is followed by 'than'.

Look at these examples:

• John is 1m80. He is tall. But Chris is 1m85. He is taller than John.

• America is big. But Russia is bigger.

• I want to have a more powerful computer.

• Is French more difficult than English?

If we talk about the two planets Earth and Mars, we can compare them like this:

Superlative Adjectives

Comparison is between 2 things: "A is bigger than B."

A       B

But the superlative is the extreme between 3 or more things. "A is the biggest."

A       B       C

Formation of Superlative Adjectives

As with comparative adjectives, there are two ways to form a superlative adjective:

• short adjectives: add '-est'

• long adjectives: use 'most'

We also usually add 'the' at the beginning.

Tip With some 2-syllable adjectives, we can use '-est' or 'most':

• quiet > the quietest/most quiet

• clever > the cleverest/most clever

• narrow > the narrowest/most narrow

• simple > the simplest/most simple

Exception! The following adjectives have irregular forms:

• good > the best

• bad > the worst

• far > the furthest

Use of Superlative Adjectives

We use a superlative adjective to describe 1 thing in a group of 3 or more things.

Look at these examples:

• John is 1m75. David is 1m80. Chris is 1m85. Chris is the tallest.

• America, China and Russia are big countries. But Russia is the biggest.

• Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world.

If we talk about the three planets Earth, Mars and Jupiter, we can use superlatives like this:

When we compare one thing with itself, we do not use "the":

• England is coldest in winter. (not the coldest)

• My boss is most generous when we get a big order. (not the most generous)

Comparison of Adverbs

There are 2 ways how the adverbs form their comparative and superlative.

1. Adverbs in -ly form their comparative and superlative with more and most. (But not early)

Could you say that more slowly, please?
Tom can shoot the most accurately.
You will just have to get up earlier.

2. Adverbs with the same form as adjectives form their comparative and superlative with -er and -est.

Sarah run the fastest.

Some adverbs form their comparative and superlative irregularly.

Comparison as...as, less etc.

We use as...as to compare 2 things that are the same in the same way.
I cannot do crosswords as quickly as you.

Less and least are the opposites of more and most.
The old man's son visits him less often nowadays.

We can repeat a comparative after and to talk about a change in something else.
They went faster and faster down the hill.

We use the+comparative to talk about a change in one thing which causes a change in something else.
The more you practise, the better you will play.

Ten sentences:

1. I am not the tallest student in our group.

2. James Hetfield plays electric guitar much better than I.

3. I think that tomorrow it will be colder than today.

4. On my girlfriend’s birthday I bought the most expensive present I could afford.

5. Sevastopol is the most picturesque city in Crimea.

6. T-1 line Internet connection is much faster than dial-up one, however it is more expensive.

7. The more I study, the better will be results.

8. On average, people eat about twice as much proteins as they need.

9. Calculus is simpler than statistics.

10) Mice are smaller than elephants.

Text(~1500 symbols):

The first computers with their electronics filled more room than up-to-date computers do. Photographs of early computers show men and women in business suits and laboratory coats standing in the middle of a room surrounded by a U-shape machine. In reality, people operating and developing the first computers did not wear suits. Air-conditioning was poorer than people needed and they dressed in T-shirts and tennis shoes.

The development of the transistor in 1948 made it possible to build smaller electronic devices. Computers became smaller and smaller and in our days personal computer can easily be fitted on the desk. Notebooks have less size than personal computers and they widely used by businessmen. For the most pretentious people engineers created a Pocket personal computer that can find room in pocket. Pocket PC is the smallest PC, on the other hand, it is the slowest and the least powerful than other personal computers. For people who do not need features like Infrared or Bluetooth connection or color display that offers Pocket PC, Palm designed small electronic organizer. It has fewer features and it is less powerful than Pocket PC, but it is also less expensive.

Computer designers are trying to create more friendly interface computer, because it is sold better. The one of the most important factors is a noise uttered by computer. Nobody likes noise and people are ready to pay more to buy quieter PC.

The progress never stops and smaller, more powerful and quieter computers will appear soon.

Can, Could, Be able to

Can and could are modal auxiliary verbs. Be able to uses the verb "to be" as a main verb. It is not an auxiliary verb, but we look at it here for convenience.

Can

Can is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use "can" to:

• talk about possibility and ability

• make requests

• ask for or give permission

Structure of Can

subject + can + main verb

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").

Notice that:

• Can is invariable. There is only one form of can.

• The main verb is always the bare infinitive.

Use of Can

can: Possibility and Ability

We use can to talk about what is possible, what we are able or free to do:

• She can drive a car.

• John can speak Spanish.

• I cannot hear you. (I can't hear you.)

• Can you hear me?

Normally, we use can for the present. But it is possible to use can when we make present decisions about future ability.

1. Can you help me with my homework? (present)

2. Sorry. I'm busy today. But I can help you tomorrow. (future)

can: Requests and Orders

We often use can in a question to ask somebody to do something. This is not a real question - we do not really want to know if the person is able to do something, we want them to do it! The use of can in this way is informal (mainly between friends and family):

• Can you make a cup of coffee, please.

• Can you put the TV on.

• Can you come here a minute.

• Can you be quiet!

can: Permission

We sometimes use can to ask or give permission for something:

1. Can I smoke in this room?

2. You can't smoke here, but you can smoke in the garden.

(Note that we also use could, may, might for permission. The use of can for permission is informal.)

Could

Could is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use "could" to:

• talk about past possibility or ability

• make requests

Structure of Could

subject + could + main verb

The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").

Notice that:

• Could is invariable. There is only one form of could.

• The main verb is always the bare infinitive.

Use of Could

could: Past Possibility or Ability

We use could to talk about what was possible in the past, what we were able or free to do:

• I could swim when I was 5 years old.

• My grandmother could speak seven languages.

• When we arrived home, we could not open the door. (...couldn't open the door.)

• Could you understand what he was saying?

We use could (positive) and couldn't (negative) for general ability in the past. But when we talk about one special occasion in the past, we use be able (positive) and couldn't (negative). Look at these examples:

could: Requests

We often use could in a question to ask somebody to do something. The use of could in this way is fairly polite (formal):

• Could you tell me where the bank is, please?

• Could you send me a catalogue, please?

Be able to

Although we look at be able to here, it is not a modal verb. It is simply the verb "to be" plus an adjective (able) followed by the infinitive. We look at "be able to" here because we sometimes use it instead of "can" and "could". We use "be able to":

• to talk about ability

Structure of Be able to

The structure of be able to is:

subject + be + able + infinitive